Preludes by T.S Elliot and Vitae Lampada by Sir Henry Newton Essay Example for Free

Preludes by T.S Elliot and Vitae Lampada by Sir Henry Newton Essay Reading both poems for the first time, there seemed to be no distinct or even vague similarities between the two poems, Preludes, by T.S Elliot and Vitae Lampada by Sir Henry Newton. However, after reading each thoroughly a few more times and carefully evaluating them, several key similarities and as always, differences, began to reveal themselves. Both Preludes as well as Vitae Lampada begines with a time introductory statement. Theres a breathless hush in the close tonight. From Vitae Lampada, and The winter evening settles down from Preludes. Both these sentences inform us of the time, a sort of evening, just after dark. The very next sentences from each poem are also similar. Ten to make and a match to win and With smells of steaks in passageways. These sentences are written by the poets to set a scene, as one would set a scene in a drama play, but in poetry, with words. These two sentences give us a strong visual image of what the rest of the poem is about. Ten to make and a match to win is similar to that of a game of cricket, and as in cricket, it gives a certain tension of the stakes, to win the match. Preludes With smells of steaks in passageways gives us a vision of a lonely passageway, with smells of steaks suggests that the person the author is describing could possibly be an outcast of society, wondering around the streets in evening. Vitae Lampada goes further into describing itself. And Its not for the sake of a ribboned coat, or the selfish hope of a seasons fame. -immediately tells us that what they are encountering in their match, what they need to win, is not a one man team, but rather the whole team working as one. Not for personal glory but for much higher stakes, for the entire team. Preludes now introduces a picture of a low, dirty place. The grimy scraps, of withered leaves about your feet. A grimy place, a dirty place, somewhere that is not well maintained, with stray withered leaves across the floor. The next few lines The showers beat on broken blinds and chimney pots. Once again an image of a badly maintained place, with rain beating on broken pots that are left behind. On the whole, a negative image. Vitae Lampada, is also setting in a negative image, an image of lost hope and despair. The sand of the desert is sodden red -Red with the wreck of a square that broke; A square, in this case is referring to a formation of troops. Sir Henry Newbolt is comparing the aspect of war, with a game of cricket and this extended metaphor has worked exceedingly well in managing to contrast and yet bring the two closer together. Sodden red suggests that a great many soldiers have died and their blood spilled across the battlefield. The next two lines, add deeper to the feeling of despair. The gatlings jammed and the colonel dead, And the regiment blind with dust and smoke The soldiers that Sir Henry Newbolt is referring to here is not in a bright situation, with their guns jammed, and their leader (colonel) dead, and the entire regiment of them blind in the dust and smoke, it is indeed apparent that a deep feeling of desolation is introduced. And, as in Preludes, a negative image is painted. Revolving around time appears to be the main theme in Preludes. The start of the second stanza the morning comes to consciousness, lets us know that the morning has come, after the evening in the first stanza. And time is also in the fourth stanza the conscience of a blackened street. could possibly mean after dark. And a few lines before, four and five and six oclock suggests that time is moving quickly. The final stanza of Vitae Lampada uses a few strong words possibly to reinforce its meaning. Every one of her sons must hear, and none that hears it dare forget. Her sons, this of course, means the countrys people and the strong word must hear, hear the patriotism perhaps? And dare forget. dare is a strong word, a threat even. Threatening them to remember their loyalty, and to never forget it. Vitae Lampadas last few lines, bring a sudden contrast, compared to the rest of the poem. The second stanza is an image of despair, but here, the final touch to the sense of patriotism is added. Bear through life like a torch in flame, and falling fling to the host behind. This sentence carries a great deal of meaning to the main theme of the poem. Bear through life like a torch in flame suggests that these troops, instead of hopelessness, now carry a symbol, a beacon of light. The torch, could be as a baton is passed on in a game of relay. As falling fling to the host behind. When a soldier falls in battle, his effort is not lost, not wasted, but instead, passed on to those behind, as they march forward, with the flaming torch. These two poems have indeed, very different ideas and themes, but they both have several things in common. For a start, both Preludes and Vitae Lampada use time description to allow the reader a window in which to see the rest of the poem. Both are describing, metaphorically, aspects of life. And they both, to an extent, use negative images to describe, to paint their visual images to the reader.

Descartes Meditations Essay -- Philosophy Doubt Meditations Descartes

Descartes' Meditations In Descartes’ meditations, Descartes begins what Bernard Williams has called the project of ‘pure enquiry’ to discover an indubitable premise or foundation to base his knowledge on, by subjecting everything to a kind of scepticism now known as Cartesian doubt. This is known as foundationalism, where a philosopher basis all epistemological knowledge on an indubitable premise. Within meditation one Descartes subjects all of his beliefs regarding sensory data and even existence to the strongest and most hyperbolic of doubts. He invokes the notion of the all powerful, malign demon who could be deceiving him regarding sensory experience and even his understanding of the simplest mathematical and logical truths in order to attain an indubitable premise that is epistemologically formidable. In meditation one Descartes has three areas of doubt, doubt of his own existence, doubt of the existence of God, and doubt of the existence of the external world. Descartes’ knowledge of these three areas are subjected to three types of scepticism the first where he believes that his senses are being deceived ‘these senses played me false, and it is prudent never to trust entirely those who have once deceived us’. The second of the forms of scepticism revolves around whether Descartes is dreaming or not ‘I see so clearly that there are no conclusive signs by means of which one can distinguish between being awake and being asleep’. The aforementioned malign demon was Descartes third method of doubt as he realised God would not deceive him. Descartes’ search for an underlying foundational premise ends when he realises he exists, at least when he thinks he exists ‘doubtless, then, that I exist and, let him deceive me as he may, he can never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I shall be conscious that I am something. So that it must, in fine, be maintained, all things being maturely and carefully considered, that this proposition I am, I exist, is necessarily true each time it is expressed by me or conceived in my mind’. This argument ‘I think therefore I am’ is Descartes’ cogito argument as in Latin it is cogito ergo sum. The cogito argument raises some difficulties, as when thinking results in existence not thinking should therefore result in non-existence leaving the problem of returning to thought from non-existence. Descartes could ... ...stence of God to a satisfactory degree, however this was not the case so instead his ‘proof’ of the existence of corporeal things is clouded by a thin veil of theology. Descartes’ attempts to extricate himself from his sceptical doubts of the meditations had a varying degree of success, his doubt of his own existence was well surmounted with the indubitable ‘cogito’ argument. The second of his doubts, that of the existence of God was not extricated as successfully with the unconvincing trademark argument and the out of date ontological argument. Descartes then went on to tackling his doubt regarding the existence of the external world, which was done well but was based on the shady proofs for the existence of God. Descartes may not have proven the existence of God or the existence of the external world however he did produce a new style of philosophy in which he attempted to base all of his epistemological knowledge (or beliefs) on a single indubitable premise, this style of philosophy now known as foundationalism has been and is still used by philosophers today at great credit to Descartes, Rene Descartes proved himself within t his book to be the father of modern philosophy.

Leqadership Self Reflextion

[Type the company name]| Leadership self reflection| [Type the document subtitle]| | keshav| 5/26/2012| | Table of Contents Introduction2 The rings of the tree and temperaments (keirsey)2 Leadership and me3 My new insights to leadership4 Leadership and my experience5 My weakness as a leader6 Conclusion6 References7 Introduction Leadership is that talent that helps an individual to help one self and others through a crisis situation and attain the goal set set by aligning the direction of his team towards the ultimate goal.It is very important to be aware of the leadership one has in himself/herself to be a better leader and nourish these qualities. These leaders will be able to perform well on ‘personal', ‘team' and ‘organisations' point of view. This essay is the reflection of me as a leader and my thoughts regarding leadership. The rings of the tree and temperaments (keirsey) As far as the communication angle of my talent is considered I am concrete in nature. I h ave well formed ideas shaped enough to be imparted to others in a very convincing way. I concentrate on reality, and facts rather than simply conveying news on the basis of mind's eye.But I am sensitive to other peoples change and try sensing a positive or negative energy in a person. In case I find negative energy I tend to sort their situation out by cooperating with them and turning the energy positive. I am also good at converting the the abstract ideas to concrete ones and implementing them if required with greatest dedication. I am cooperative in nature and this makes me friendlier to my colleagues. I am empathetic too and I allot works on the basis of my team members ‘like' or ‘dislike' and the ‘quality of the work' that are offered by them.This helps me to assign the ‘right work' for the team member and this helps in maximum productivity and satisfaction from the employees (Keirsey, 1998). In the third ring of being reactive or proactive in nature i. e. directive or informative I am more lenient towards proactive one. This is also one of the advantages of being intuitive. I am capable at directing others to achieve the goals that are set. When it comes to the fourth ring I am more expressive than I am attentive. Among the four temperaments that are there, I belong to the to the guardians category that are concrete and cooperative.I relate myself more to the administrator than to the conservators (Keirsey, 1998). Leadership and me It is important to analyse oneself as a leader and to be aware of one's strength and weakness to make a better leader. Most effective leaders always invest in their strengths and surround themselves with the right people to maximise their team. They also understand their follower's needs. These are some of the core strengths I have as a leader. I am aware and am appreciative of my leadership skills of communication, mindfulness and empathy. I try on building up my strengths and reducing my weakness thro ugh self analysis.Like all the leaders in the world I was also influenced by the other teachers and prominent personalities and am inspired by their leadership styles. I also realise that the leaders made these changes through planning that was implemented on a time plan. I also hope to inspire people around me and make them be appreciative by adapting the most vibrant and preferable style for others. The leaders also influence change by providing direction and chances for continuous improvement. As a leader in my life the number of roles I have played is very limited considering the interpersonal, informational and managerial roles of a leader.I have been a leader, monitor and resource allocator to my team and the roles played on other areas like negotiator, disturbance-handler, entrepreneur, spokesperson, disseminator, liaison and figurehead are very limited and have to be undertaken in the future. I have only worked on an individual and group level of an organisation and haven't managed to get past the middle-level management in an organisation. On the basis of the leadership trait theories I sense the traits of I have comparatively a higher level of energy and has a talent of persuasion.My leadership style also belongs to the new style of leadership that is accepted in the new era and that is highly decentralised in nature. I value my team members and try to appreciate them for their contributions in the welfare of the team. I also promote the system of feedback and thereby improve myself and helping others to improve. This also means that I have adapted myself to a democratic leadership style. I also realise that there is nothing appreciative in a team as favourable working employs. What motivates me in leadership is need for affiliation.I am willing to please people and am very often concerned about them. I have a very positive outlook on leadership and I am more productive when I work with employees who have theory Y attitude. I also try and make my tea m positive enough to realise the Pygmalion effect of thinking positive. I am also very strict about being ethical in implementing responsibilities when I, the team members and the organisation is concerned. This is also why I think upbringing of a child highly influences the moral and ethical standards that will be followed by him/her in the future. My new insights to leadershipLeadership qualities can be inborn. But they can be conquered through continuous efforts and through planning. Leaders are relied upon by the organisations for achieving the already set goals. It can even be said that the the success or failure of an organisation highly relies on the success of the various leadership styles that are adopted by the leaders. It is not possible for all the leaders to have all the ideal qualities of being a leader. It is the different combinations of these qualities that makes one leader different from one another and allows one to be better than the other.On reading the book â⠂¬Ëœthe Tao of Leadership', I accept some of the truths behind leadership of which some are ‘wise leader is like water'. A leader should have it in him to cleanse and refresh all the creatures without any difference and is fearless to search in to the surface of things. It is responsive and is ultimately not bound to anyone. The ultimate goal of a leader is harmony. When harmony is established things tend to work on an organised pace. The group who is working for a leader is very sensitive. When mistreated or not considered adequately, they tend to be unproductive and conflicts occur.For the best performance, a leader should also be low and open. The reason is that a good leader is also a good follower of the right strategies that are adopted by others. A wise leader is responsible for providing opportunities to all the followers even at the risk of getting unnoticed. A good leader should not only be aiming for good reward and acknowledgement (Heider, 1986). Leadership and my experience I have been selected to leadership roles in education institutes and was a team leader in the organisation that I was employed in. I was chosen as a team leader of a new process without being introduced to the team.When started my work as a team leader I realised that the team members were not comfortable with each other and that has really affected the team's performance as a single unit in spite of the fact that the employees were all hardworking. One of the initial steps I took after I took up the role was to resolve conflict through persuasive communication and the misunderstandings vanished in a very short interval of time. The team gathered together, was work and fun oriented at the same time, and also was appreciated for its achievement in a short time span.Initially three problems were not sorted and then we all glued up well because of the ‘need for affiliation' I had and the ‘requirement of achievement' a few others had in the group. My weakness as a leader As a leader I at times tend to be too democratic people fail to realise the difference between the team members and the team leader. I am not achievement oriented which is not always favourable. Different leadership styles are acceptable at different circumstances as I suggested by the situational leadership theory.I am comfortable in one style of leadership and am in heavy requirement for the affiliation. But the democratic style of leadership may not be optimal when there is a situational change and the preferences would be for autocratic and bureaucratic leadership style. I tend to express myself more than than being an active listener. This means that my team mates may find me incommunicable to. Being unapproachable is a very bad quality where in a leader is concerned. I will also have a tough time working with type X employees because of my decentralised style of leadership.There were also many situations while taking the test keirsey that I faced questions that are not mutually exclusive. Even as a leader there are some fatal flaws that tend to occur. On being accepted by other if I will also make one of these fatal flaws that usually occur to leaders like thinking I am the smartest person in the room, being a control freak, the politician, the pleaser or the kind. It's very difficult for a leader to achieve a balance between all these requirements and it can be achieved only through experience (Lloyd, 2011) Conclusion The quality of leadership can be inborn and can be nurtured well.Organisations should find out talents within the firm and nurture them to be leaders of productive teams so that organisational goals are achieved while being in favour of the employees as well. Leadership is quality that has to be appreciated for being the root cause of the success or failure within an organisation. Employees within an organisation should be given chances to evaluate them self as a leader and person and then choose the most favourable position to enh ance productivity. References * Keirsey, D. (1998). Please understand me 11: temperament, character, intelligence.Prometheus Nemesis book Company. * Lloyd, J. (2011). Five fatal flaws of a leader. Retrieved from http://www. jobdig. com/articles/1572/Five_Fatal_Flaws_of_a_Leader. html. * Lussier, R. N & Christopher f. A. (2010). Leadership: theory, application, Skill development. Cengage Learning. * Heider, J. (1986). The Toa of leadership: leadership strategies for new age. Bantam. * Valentine, S, Godkin, L & Philip E V. (2009). Role conflict mindfulness and organisational ethics in an education based healthcare institution. Journal of business ethics, 94 (3), 455-469.

The Effects Of Climate Change On Earth Essay - 2260 Words

Humans’ contributions to Climate Change are constant, and not going slowing down without changes. Climate Change is the changing of global weather and temperatures at an abnormal rate. Most activities in our everyday lives has made a contribution, whether it be the technology being used or the cars being driven --- with that, many choose to ignore Climate Change, proceeding with their everyday activity. Meanwhile, on a global scale, the rate of these changes is detrimental to life on earth. NASA explicitly addresses that these fluctuations of climate are natural, but the rate in temperature changes is quicker than ever before. Vast studies show that typically the changes last about a thousand years before the next period of changes, but recently that has taken a turn. Human innovations have backfired, with the earth at stake due to unforeseen externalities. With the advancement of a more technological society, comes great responsibility to the earth, our home. Increased carbon dioxide emissions have played a massive role in the increased rate of climate changes. The Industrial Revolution or â€Å"Great Transformation† during the late 1700s appears to be the start of the trend. With the technological advances of their century, these creators did not foresee the severe environmental outcomes that would come of it all, resulting in future centuries of civil unrest, and as . â€Å"Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide haveShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Climate Change On The Earth1679 Words   |  7 PagesThe studies of Earth have showed that in the last hundred years, the temperature has gone up one degree Fahrenheit. Even just one degree can make a big difference to the Earth’s natural form. The warming of the Earth has caused the snow and ice to melt much faster and the ocean levels to rise. In the next hundred years the effects will be more severe. There are normally cooler parts of the Earth that are heavily impacted by climate change. Some that have been observed are the land areas in the ArcticRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On Earth1267 Words   |  6 Pagesmatter, this is not the first time that climate change has affected the planet in the past there were many problems to the earth millions of years ago. There were five major ice ages from the longest and first scientists believe occurred was two point four to two point one billion years ago during the early Proterozoic Eon there was an ice age formed and it was the Huronian. The second ice age was the cryogenian and it has been known that it produced a snowball earth in which permanent sea ice extendedRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On The Earth1668 Words   |  7 PagesThe studies of Earth have shown that in the last hundred years, the temperature has gone up one degree Fahrenheit. Even just one degree can make a big difference to the Earth’s natu ral form. The warming of the Earth has caused the snow and ice to melt much faster and the ocean levels to rise. In the next hundred years the effects will be more severe. There are normally cooler parts of the Earth that are heavily impacted by climate change. Some that have been observed are the land areas in the ArcticRead MoreClimate Change And Its Effects On The Earth942 Words   |  4 PagesThe amount of Green House Gas (GHG) emissions that are produced and released in the atmosphere from Canada, the United States (U.S), and many other countries, is a big issue for the planet’s health since it causes climate change. Climate change has various damaging effects on the earth. It can cause severe weather such as floods, droughts, etc. Some political parties agree that a carbon pricing policy should be implemented, like the Green party, New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Liberals, whileRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On The Earth1358 Words   |  6 PagesEurope. Climate change is classed as any alteration in global weather patterns over a period of time. However the climate change the earth is currently experiencing is far from anyt hing ever experienced before and its 99% certain that it has been caused by human industrialisation. Like anything that affects the earth on a global scale it affects everything including microorganisms and therefore disease. Climate change is causing disease to spread and increase in severity. The main adverse effects causingRead MoreClimate Change And Its Effect On Earth Essay1293 Words   |  6 Pages What is climate change? Climate change, additionally called an unnatural weather change, alludes to the ascent in normal surface temperatures on Earth. The present warming pattern is of specific essentialness on the grounds that the majority of it is likely human-incited and continuing at a rate that is exceptional in the previous 1,300 years. Earth-circling satellites and other innovative advances have empowered researchers to see the comprehensive view, gathering a wide range of sorts of dataRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On The Earth1210 Words   |  5 Pages Climat e change can be a very controversial topic because many people are skeptical about whether or not it is caused by humans, or if it even exists. Regardless of whether people believe in climate change or not, there is an immense amount of evidence to support that the earth’s core temperature is slowly rising, and humans are directly causing it. Everything humans do impacts the earth in some way. Many of the resources needed for everyday life are retrieved in ways that are harming the planetRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On The Earth1256 Words   |  6 PagesClimate change is the process of change in average long term weather patterns. These long term changes can be limited to small local areas such as cities or countries, large broad areas or cover the overall climate of Earth. Climate change occurs naturally due to the orbit of the Earth, ocean changes, changes in solar radiation levels and volcanic disasters. Although these natural influences do play a part in climat e change most scientists believe that the rate of climate change that the Earth hasRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On Earth1695 Words   |  7 Pagestemperatures to date. Around this time, droughts, wildfires and other notable weather episodes lessened in rarity. These new visible extreme events were quickly blamed on climate change by the masses. However, it may or may not be true that these climactic incidents are symptomatic of an environmental imbalance. Climate change is defined as an accentuated difference in averages of weather circumstances or in intense meteorological occurrences for a given time. Studies do show that temperatures areRead MoreThe Effects Of Climate Change On Earth2580 Words   |  11 Pagessubstantial effect on Earth, one of the most noteworthy being climate change, with the significant increase in the concentration of greenhouses gases altering the climate of Earth (Walker and Steffen, 1997). The potential causes of climate change are a complex s ubject, with a wide variety of interwoven causes and consequences from both biogeophysical and human related sources (Peterson et al., 1997). While ecosystems have previously shown some ability to naturally adapt to climate change, this resilience

Persuasive Essay On Christopher Columbus Day - 718 Words

What is Columbus day? Columbus Day is a United States holiday that celebrates the landing of Christopher Columbus in the Americas on October 12, 1492. It was celebrated in a number of cities and states in the 18th century,but it was not a real holiday until 1937. For some people the holiday is a way of honoring Columbus’ achievements and celebrating Italian-American heritage.Columbus Day and Christopher Columbus himself has generated controversy, and many different ways to celebrate have been proposed since the 1970s. Christopher Columbus is a very or may be a very important person in the lives of the american people. If he wouldnt have travelled to South America the Europeans wouldnt have colonized and the history of how we know†¦show more content†¦This could cause death to some families and make families slaves and because Columbus captured more Indian slaves than he could transport to Spain in his small ship he brought. He made them work in mines and plantations were created all over the Caribbean. His followers hunted Indians for sport and profit. They would beat, rape, torture, kill, and then use the Indian bodies as food for their hunting dogs. Within four years of Columbus arrival on Hispaniola, his men had killed or exported one-third of the original Indian population of 300,000. Thats a huge number! Now i dont believe we should celebrate a holiday if it is about killing people and the mass persecution of Native people. Living in the U.S i know that when i see Columbus day on th e schedule and it comes on a school day i smile because i get to miss school. Kids only care about the holiday so they can miss school and they do zero research on it. The United StatesShow MoreRelatedWe Should Abolish Columbus Day1389 Words   |  6 Pages2016 We Should Abolish Columbus Day Only two federal holidays in the United States bear the name of two specific men, ironically one of them fought racism -- Martin Luther King Jr., and the other was a genocidal racist – Chistopher Columbus. Opposition to Columbus Day (observed on the second Monday of October) has intensified in recent decades, while the former passes each year with relatively little controversy. The issue of if we should still celebrate Columbus Day is widely discussed. TheRead MoreThe Color Of Violence Haunani Trask Analysis1412 Words   |  6 Pagescountry as â€Å" a country created out of genocide and colonialism† (9). She supports her claim by informing us about ill health, militarization, and racism. In order to do so, she uses logos, ethos, pathos, and structures her essay by using cause and effect. Trask also structures her essay by dividing it in three parts. She first prepares the reader, then makes claims that are supported by evidence such as statistics, and lastly she prop oses a solution. Her project for this article is to gain sovereigntyRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesinformation looking to reinforce existing views rather than to accept the view that is backed up with the better argument, our course is designed to combat this tendency. Facing a Decision as a Critical Thinker Imagine this situation. You are on a four-day backpacking trip in a national wilderness area with your friends Juanita and Emilio. The summer weathers great, the scenery is exotic, and youve been having a good time. Yesterday you drove several hours into the area and parked in the main parkingRead MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 Pagesprimary data on the movement but to analyze and re-analyze the growing body of scholarly and popular literature on the movement, including sociological and anthropological studies, biographies, monographs, dissertations, published and unpublished essays, and periodical articles. Archival sources, such as newspaper reports, policy statements, pamphlets, and organization manuals have also provided useful information. Chapter 1 reviews and reï ¬ nes Webers theory of charisma and routinization, usingRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesPHILADELPHIA Temple University Press 1601 North Broad Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122 www.temple.edu/tempress Copyright  © 2010 by Temple University All rights reserved Published 2010 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Essays on twentieth century history / edited by Michael Peter Adas for the American Historical Association. p. cm.—(Critical perspectives on the past) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4399-0269-1 (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4399-0270-7Read MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOrganizational Behavior This page intentionally left blank Organizational Behavior EDITION 15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:Read MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 Pagessubunits or functions, also serve as liaisons between top management and supervisors. †¢ The managers in the lowest position of the management hierarchy are supervisors, sometimes called first-line managers. First-line managers or supervisors lead the day-to-day activities of individual employees as they work to accomplish the desired organizational objectives, and they are responsible for the production of goods or services. These managers implement procedures and processes that allow their units to work

Why the Communists Failed to Seize Power in 1918 Essay

Why the Communists Failed to Seize Power in 1918 The failure of the communists to seize power originates from the First World War. Initially, all parties, including the Left, supported Germany going to war. As the war prolonged however and Germany was running short of essential supplies such as food as a result of the blockade by the allies. More Germans started questioning the rational of continuing with the war. The Parliament also changed its attitude. Left wing parties like the SPD that had initially supported Germany going to war began to have doubts. Internal conflicts let to the formation of the Independent German Social Democratic Party, USPD. Another far-extreme party, the Spartacist party†¦show more content†¦They organized antiwar demonstrations and strikes. Still, those in power did not think the government was under any threat. The country was not ready for a revolution even though the morale was low as a result of the defeat in the First World War and there was shortage of essential supplies including food and medicine as a result of the blockade by the allies. The nation was generally in a state of turmoil. There was a general feeling especially within the left wing that time was ripe for a break from the capitalist government. The monarchy was overthrown and a provisional government set up. A network of soldiers and workers councils was established nationwide. However, the SDP being the government of the day controlled the councils. In the councils there were more delegates who were SDP than workers delegates.[1] This meant that the SDP controlled both the government ant the councils. They also had the support of the masses. The councils were also weakly coordinated. The main factors that contributed to this failure were the following: Ø Unlike Russia, Germany was an advanced industrial nation with a solid and powerful capitalist class. The middle class was strong and influential. Ø Unlike their counterparts in Russia and France, the German working class had benefited from several welfare measures since the 1800s. The army had had gloriousShow MoreRelatedLenin‚Äà ²s October 1917 Revolution: limited accomplishments, yet a turning point in 20th century history2291 Words   |  10 Pagesnations impeded that spread,. Once having become the leader of the vast territories that had formed the Russian Empire and having created a constitution nearly approaching democracy, Lenin was further surprised when the large majority of the populace failed to be inspired by the ideals of Communism, leading Lenin to regretfully become totalitarian in order to protect the revolution. At his death, succeeded by the unabashedly totalitarian Stalin ruling what was de facto state capitalism, only a few ofRead MoreEffects Of Vladimir Lenin On Russia1608 Words   |  7 PagesUnited States knew the danger that Lenin and his Communist party posed to the future. Vladimir Lenin was a dictator who brought famine, civil war, and fear to his people and implemented a failed communist government that only caused h arm. In November of 1917, October on the Russian calendar, and under the financial assistance of Germany, Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia and took full leadership of the Bolsheviks to become the dominant political power over the country with the promise to give landRead MoreThe Russian Revolution And The Revolution1767 Words   |  8 PagesThe Russian Revolution was a series of two revolutions that consisted of the February Revolution and the October Revolution. The February Revolution of March 8th, 1917 was a revolution targeted and successfully removed Czar Nicholas II from power. The February Revolution first began to take place when strikes and public protests between 1916 and early 1917 started occurring. These strikes were created to protest against and to blame Czar Nicholas II for Russia’s poor performance in WWI and severeRead MoreHow and Why Did Mussolini Rise to Power? Essay4426 Words   |  18 PagesHow and why did Mussolini come to power in 1922? The tumultuous era preceding Mussolini’s rise to power was marked by post-war grievances and prolonged economic instability; both of these factors resulted in popular dissatisfaction with liberalism and created an opportune atmosphere for his accession to power. The years following Italy’s unification in 1871 were blighted by poverty, a lack of nationalism and most devastatingly involvement in the First World War, resulting in national humiliationRead MoreHow Did Hitler Become Chancellor in 1933?1659 Words   |  7 Pagesthe effect of Hitler’s dramatic yet effective speeches and the rumours that he spread about the Jews whilst he was in jail, writing his book, â€Å"Mein Kampf†. Following World War I, the Weimar Republic emerged from the  German Revolution  in November 1918.  The later period of  liberal democracy  lapsed in the early 1930s, leading to the ascent of the  Nazi Party  and  Adolf Hitler  in 1933. The legal measures taken by the Nazi government in February and March 1933 meant that the government could legislateRead MoreEssay on Hitlers Rise to Power3943 Words   |  16 Pages Hitlers Rise to Power Looking back at the horrendous events that occurred during the Second World War, many of the people effected or even not so effected often ask the question ‘Who let a mad man like Hitler come into power?’ The answer is, no one let him come into power, therefore it’s probably more accurate, to say ‘What enabled Hitler to come to power’ To answer this question, one must study the episode from 1918-1935 closely in order to understand theRead MoreEssay on The Impact that Lenin had on Russia and the Russian People2068 Words   |  9 Pageshad over 55,650,000 Russians in it. The leader of Russia from 1905 to 1917 was Tsar Nicholas II (emperor) who was ruler of Russia. The Tsar was independent and had autocratic power, which meant that he shared his power with no one, meaning Russia didnt have to vote. Before the Tsar was in power the Russian army performed a war against Japan and lost because their army was very unequipped and was made up of conscripts (people forced in the army). =================Read MoreEssay on Account For the Success of the Bolsheviks in October 19171936 Words   |  8 Pagesadvancing on the rest of the country. This success was due to several linked factors; the Bolshevik policy of non-cooperation, weakness of the Provisional Government, division of alternative opposition, Lenins leadership skills, the power of the Petrograd Soviet and Trotsky as its leader, failure on deliver of land reform and the oppressed, armed workers in Petrograd. Bolshevik success is dictated by whether they met their aims; these included the establishment ofRead MoreHow Significant Was The Economic Policy During The Russian Civil War For The Soviet Union? Essay1902 Words   |  8 PagesSIGNIFICANT WAS BOLSHEVIK ECONOMIC POLICY DURING THE RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR FOR THE SOVIET UNION? The Bolshevik Economic Policy during the Civil War was significant for the Soviet Union as it helped to win the war and was the first implementation of Communist ideology anywhere. In addition, it affected many people, led to the Tambov Revolt and the Kronstadt Mutiny and had long-term political consequences. The Bolsheviks’ aim was to dismantle the outdated structure of Tsarist regime and create a new economicRead More The German Economy and Societal Change: 1890-1991 Essay1822 Words   |  8 PagesGermany in the 19th century and they wanted their ‘place in the sun.’ Germany had industrialised rapidly since 1850 so that by 1900 under the Kaiser, its industry was the equivalent of Britain’s and bigger than France’s. This meant Germany had economic power and many people wanted to translate this into territorial expansion. Kaiser Wilhelm was too obsessed with his idea of increasing Germany’s sphere of influence over Europe. Growing in confidenc e Germany was involved in a Naval Race with Britain in the

Why teams don’t work Free Essays

string(117) " habitually is compared to that of a conventional unit \(or, perhaps, to the same one before teams were installed\)\." Here are some reports from the field, cited by Osborn, Moran, Mushiest, and Zinger (1990) in Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge. At Xerox, the authors report, Plants using work teams are 30 percent more productive than conventionally organized plants. Procter Gamble gets 30 to 40 percent higher productivity at its 18 team-based plants†¦. We will write a custom essay sample on Why teams don’t work? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Tektronix Inc. Reports that one self-directed work team now turns out as many products in 3 days as it once took an entire assembly line to produce in 14 days†¦. Federal Express cut service glitches such as incorrect bills and lost packages by 13 percent†¦. Shenandoah Life processes 50 percent more applications and customer service requests using work teams, with 10 percent fewer people. (up. 5-6) Heady stuff, that, and it is reinforced by back-cover blurbs. Tom Peters: â€Å"Selfridges work teams are the cornerstone of improved competitiveness .. † . Bob Waterman: â€Å"Self-Directed Work Teams seems too good to be true: dramatic improvement in productivity and a happier, more committed, more flexible work force. Yet †¦ They do just what they promise for the likes of PG, GE, and Ford. † It makes sense. Teams bring more resources, and more diverse resources, to bear J. Richard Hickman ; Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. Theory and Research on Small Groups, edited by R. Scott Tindal et al. Plenum Press, New York, 1998. 245 246 on a task than could any single performer. Moreover, teams offer flexibility in the use of those resources-?the capability to quickly redeploy member talents and energies and to keep the work going even when some members are unavailable. Teams composed of people from different units can transcend traditional functional and organizational barriers and get members pulling together toward collective objectives. And, of course, teams offer the potential for synergy, that wonderful state when a group â€Å"clicks†and members achieve something together that no one of them could possibly have accomplished alone. These are major benefits, worthy of the attention of the leaders of any purposive enterprise. No wonder Steersman found teams to be so popular. But there is a puzzle here. Research evidence about team performance shows that teams usually do less well-?not better-?than the sum of their members’ individual contributions. I first encountered this bleak fact as a beginning doctoral student at he University of Illinois. In a course on group dynamics, Ivan Steiner put on the board his now well-known equation: AP = UP – PL; that is, the actual productivity of a group equals its potential productivity (what the team is theoretically capable of, given the resources brought by members) minus what he called process losses such as coordination and motivational problems (Steiner, 1972). I was surprised that there was no term for process gains, the synergistic benefits that can emerge when people work together. The model, I thought, should really read: AP = UP – PL + PEG. It turns out hat there is no empirical Justification for that extra term. When interacting teams are compared to â€Å"nominal† groups (I. E. , groups that never meet, whose output is constructed by combining the separate contributions of those who would have been members), nominal groups usually win. And when Steiner’s models miss the mark in empirical studies, the problem usually is that groups fail to achieve even the relatively modest performance targets specified by those models. At least for groups in the experimental laboratory. Maybe the laboratory context is so constraining that groups do not have the elbow room to show what they can do. Maybe the real advantages of groups are only to be found in organizational practice. I came up short on this hypothesis as well, this time at the hands of Bill Hicks, an editor at Josses- Bass. My colleagues and I had completed an intensive study of some 33 different work groups of all different kinds-?athletic teams, industrial production workers, top management teams, prison guards, airline crews, economic analysts, and more. We pulled our findings together in a book that I proposed be titled Groups That Work, a catchy phrase with what I thought to be a clever pun. Bill sat me down and said he’d e happy to publish the book, but not with that title: There were Just too many groups in our study that barely worked at all. I went back to the manuscript and found that he was right. Probably 4 of our 33 groups were actually effective teams. The rest had problems so severe that our analysis was mainly about what had gone wrong with them. So the book was published with a parenthetical phrase after my clever title: Groups That Work (And Those That Don’t). Anyone who actually reads through it will discover, as Bill did, that most of our groups lie within the parentheses. Moreover, the preface of the book offers a cautionary note about team effectiveness, based on the experience of the authors who wrote it. The book took 9 years to be completed, mainly because our own team suffered a near-total collapse midway through the project. 247 Other in-depth studies of real groups performing real work provide additional reasons for concern-?such Irvi ng Jinni’s (1982) well-known demonstration that even highly cohesive groups composed of well-qualified, well-motivated people sometimes fall into a pattern of â€Å"grouping†that can yield disastrous policy recommendations. What, then, are we to make of all the team successes reported in the managerial literature? It is possible, of course, that the published claims are exaggerated, as writers have sought to catch the wave of enthusiasm about teams-?to sell books, to build consulting practices, to market training programs, to become team gurus. That is not a sufficient explanation. Indeed, I trust the accuracy of the numbers about productivity and service gains that are reported in the popular books about teams. My concern, instead, is whether those numbers really mean what they seem to mean. Consider first the attributions that are made about the causes of team successes. After teams have been implemented in an organizational unit, its performance habitually is compared to that of a conventional unit (or, perhaps, to the same one before teams were installed). You read "Why teams don’t work?" in category "Papers" Such comparisons are fraught with interpretive ambiguities, because there invariably are many differences between the units compared-? in technologies, labor markets, senior managers, and so on. It almost never is the case that the only change is that work previously done by individuals is now performed by teams. Was it the teams that generated the improvements, or was it one of the other differences between the units? It is not possible to know for sure. 2 Questions also can be raised about the staying power of any performance improvements obtained when teams are installed. The implementation of any new management program, be it self-managing teams or anything else, invariably involves intense scrutiny of the unit where the changes will occur. Taking a close look at any work unit that has been operating for a while almost always surfaces some inefficiencies and poor work procedures. These incidental problems are corrected as part of the change process-?it would be foolish not to. But in making those corrections, an interpretive ambiguity is introduced. Was it the team design that resulted in the improvements found, or was it that a shoddy work system was shaped p? Virtually any intervention that is not itself destructive has a better-than-even chance of generating short-term improvements, simply because of the value of intently inspecting a work system. This, in addition to any benefits from the well- known â€Å"Hawthorne effect† (Rotisseries Dickson, 1939). The question, then, is whether short-term improvements associated with the introduction of teams are sustained over time as the newness wears off and inefficiencies begin to creep back into the system. Again, it is not possible to know for sure-?at least not without an appropriate longitudinal research design. 2 The solution to this problem, of course, is to conduct experimental research on the impact of team designs for work, because true experiments allow unambiguous inferences to be drawn about the causes of any effects obtained. Unfortunately, experiments are rarely a viable option for comparing team and traditional work designs in organizations. For one thing, the level of experimenter control required in such studies (I. E. , to randomly assign people to teams and teams to experimental conditions) would not be tolerated by most managers who have work to get out. And even if an organization were found in which managers would relinquish such control to experimenters, there would be serious questions about the generalization of findings obtained in such an unusual place (Hickman, 1985). 248 So what is going on here? How can we reconcile the amazing reports from the field about the benefits of teams with the gloomy picture that has emerged from scholarly research on group performance? Do teams generate the benefits for their organizations that are claimed for them, or do they not? 3 My observations of teams in organizations suggest that teams tend to clump at both ends of the effectiveness continuum. Teams that go sour often do so in multiple ways -?clients are dissatisfied with a team’s work, members become frustrated and disillusioned, and the team becomes ever weaker as a performing unit. Such teams are easily outperformed by smoothly functioning traditional units. On the other hand, teams that function well can indeed achieve a level of synergy and agility that never could be preprogrammed by organization planners or enforced by external managers. Members of such teams respond to their clients and to each other quickly and creatively, generating both superb performance and ever-increasing personal ND collective capability. Teams, then, are somewhat akin to audio amplifiers: Whatever passes through the device-?be it signal or noise-?comes out louder. To ask whether organizational performance improves when teams are used to accomplish work is to ask a question that has no general answer. A more tractable question, and the one explored in the remainder of this chapter, is what differentiates those teams that go into orbit and achieve real synergy from those that crash and bum. As we will see, the answer to this second question has much more to do with how teams are trucked and supported than with any inherent virtues or liabilities of teams as performing units. Mistakes Managers Make In the course of several research projects, my colleagues and I have identified a number of mistakes that designers and leaders of work groups sometimes make. What follows is a summary of the six most pernicious of these mistakes, along with the actions that those who create and lead work teams in organizations can take to avoid them. 4 Mistake l: Use a Team for Work That Is Better Done by Individuals There are some tasks that only a team can do, such as performing a string quartet or arraying out a multiparty negotiation. There are other tasks, however, that are inimical to team work. One such task is creative writing. Not many great novels, There is a large and diverse published literature on the performance of self-managing teams. Here is a â€Å"starter set† of illustrative and informative pieces: Cohen and Leotard (1994), Sorcery, Mueller, and Smith (1991), Gun (1984), Jackson, Malarkey, and Parker (1994), Pops and Marcus (1980), Wall, Kemp, Jackson, and College (1986), and Walton (1980). Some of the material in the next section is adapted from Hickman (1990). 3 Why Teams Downtown’s 249 symphonic scores, or epic poems have been written by teams. Such tasks involve bringing to the surface, organizing, and expressing thoughts and ideas that are but partially formed in one’s mind (or, in some cases, that lie deep in one’s unconscious), and they are inherently better suited for individual than for collective performance. Even committee reports-?mundane products compared to novels, poems, and musical scores-?invariably turn out better when written by one talented individual on behalf of a group than by the group as a whole working in lockstep. The same is true for executive leadership. For all the attention being given to top management teams these days, my reading of the management literature is that successful organizations almost always are led by a single, talented and courageous human being. Among the many executive functions that are better accomplished by an exceptional individual than by an interacting team is the articulation of a challenging and inspiring collective direction. Here, for example, is a mission statement copied from a poster in a company cafeteria: â€Å"Our mission is to provide quality products and arrives that meet the needs of individuals and businesses, allowing us to prosper and provide a fair return to our stockholders. Although I do not know how that particular statement was prepared, I would be willing to wager that it was hammered out by a committee over many long meetings. The most engaging and powerful statements of corporate vision, by contrast, invariably are the product of a single intelligence, set forth by a leader willing to take the risk of establishing collective purposes that lie Just beyond what others believe to be the limits of the organization’s capability. Beyond creative writing and executive leadership, there are man y other kinds of tasks that are better done by individuals than by teams. It is a mistake-a common one and often a fatal one-?to use a team for work that requires the exercise of powers that reside within and are best expressed by individual human beings. Mistake 2: Call the Performing Unit a Team but Really Manage Members as To reap the benefits of teamwork, one must actually build a team. Real teams are bounded social systems whose members are interdependent for a shared purpose, and who interact as a unit with other individuals and groups in achieving that repose (Alder, 1977). Teams can be small or large, face-to-face or electronically connected, and temporary or permanent. Only if a group is so large, loosely connected, or short-lived that members cannot operate as an intact social system does the entity cease to be a team. Managers sometimes attempt to capture the benefits of teamwork by simply declaring that some set of people (often everyone who reports to the same supervisor) is now a team and that members should henceforth behave accordingly. Real teams cannot be created that way. Instead, explicit action must be taken to establish and affirm the team’s boundaries, to define the task for which members are collectively responsible, and to give the team the autonomy members need to manage both their 250 own team processes and their relations with external entities such as clients and coworkers. Creating and launching real teams is not something that can be accomplished casually, as is illustrated by research on airline cockpit crews. It is team functioning, rather than mechanical problems or the technical proficiency of individual pilots, that is at the root of most airline accidents (Helices Focuses, 1993). Crews are especially vulnerable when they are Just starting out: the National Transportation Safety Board (NTIS) found that 73% of the accidents in its database occurred on the crew’s first day of flying together, and 44% of those accidents happened on the crews very first flight (National Transportation Safety Board, 1994, up. 0-41). Other research has shown that experienced crews, even when fatigued, perform significantly better than do rested crews whose members have not worked together (Focuses, Lubber, Battle, Comb, 1986), and that a competent preflight briefing by he captain can help reduce a crew’s exposure to the liabilities of newness (Gannett, 1993). This substantial body of research has clear policy implications. Crews should be kept intact over time, preflight briefings should be standard practice, and captains should be trained in the skills needed to conduct briefings that get crews off to a good start (Hickman, 1993). Yet in most airlines, crew composition is constantly changing because of the long-standing practice, enforced by labor contracts, of assigning pilots to trips, positions, and aircraft as individuals-?usually on the basis of seniority bidding system. Virtually all U. S. Airlines now do require that crew briefings be held. Yet captains receive little training in how to conduct a good one, some briefings are quite cursory (e. G. , â€Å"Let’s the social hour over real quick so we can get on out to the airplane†), and schedules can get so hectic that crew members may not even have time for proper introductions, let alone a briefing, before they start to fly together. Creating and launching real teams is a significant challenge in organizations such as airlines that have deeply rooted policies and practices that are oriented primarily toward individuals rather than teams. To try to capture the benefits of teamwork in such organizations, managers sometimes opt for a mixed model in which some parts of the work and the reward system are structured for individual performance, whereas other parts require teamwork and provide team- based rewards. Research has shown that such compromises rarely work well. Mixed models send contradictory signals to members, engender confusion about who is responsible and accountable for what portions of the work, and generally underperformed both individual and real-team models (Washman, 1995). If the performing unit is to be a team, then it should be a real team-?and it should be managed as such. Mistake 3: Fall Off the Authority Balance Beam The exercise of authority creates anxiety, especially when one must balance between assigning a team authority for some parts of the work and withholding it for other parts. Because both managers and team members tend to be uncomfortable in 251 such situations, they may implicitly collude to â€Å"clarifying is really in charge of the work. Sometimes the result is the assignment of virtually all authority to the team-? which can result in anarchy or in a team heading off in an inappropriate direction. Other times, managers retain all authority for themselves, dictating work procedures in detail to team members and, in the process, losing many of the advantages that can accrue from team work. To maintain an appropriate balance of authority between managers and teams requires that anxieties be managed rather than minimized. Moreover, it is insufficient merely to decide how much authority a team should have. Equally important are the domains of authority that are assigned to teams and retained by managers. Our research suggests that team effectiveness is enhanced when managers are unapologetic and insistent about exercising their own legitimate authority about direction, the end states the team is to pursue. Authority about the means by which those ends are accomplished, however, should rest squarely with the team itself. 5 Contrary to traditional wisdom about participative management, to authoritatively set a clear, engaging direction for a team is to empower, not deplorer, it. Having clear direction helps align team efforts with the objectives of the parent organization, provides members with a criterion to use in choosing among various means for pursuing those objectives, and fosters the motivational engagement of team members. When direction is absent or unclear, members may wallow in uncertainty about what they should be doing and may even have difficulty generating the motivation to do much of anything. Few design choices are more consequential for the long-term well-being of teams than those that address the partitioning of authority between managers and teams. It takes skill to accomplish this well, and it is a skill that has emotional and behavioral as well as cognitive components. Just knowing the rules for partitioning authority is insufficient; one also needs some practice in applying those rules in situations where anxieties, including one’s own, are likely to be high. 6 Especially challenging are the early stages of a group’s life (when well-meaning managers may be tempted to give away too much authority) and when the going gets rough (when the temptation is to take authority back too soon). The management of authority relations with task- performing groups is much like walking a balance beam, and our evidence suggests that it takes a good measure of knowledge, skill, and perseverance to keep from falling off. As used here, the terms manager and team refer to conventional organizational arrangements in which some individuals (â€Å"managers†) are authorized to structure work for performance by other organization members. Teams that have been given the authority to monitor and manage their own work processes are therefore called â€Å"self-managing. In some circumstances, teams also have the authority to set their own direction. Examples include physicians in a small-group practice, a professional string quartet, and a mom-and-pop grocery store. These kinds of teams are referred to as â€Å"self-governing† (Hickman, 1986). Given that newly minted Mambas increasingly find themselves working in or leading task-performing teams immediately after graduation, it is unfortunate that few MBA programs provide their students with practice and feedback in developing such skills. 252 Mistake 4: Dismantle Existing Organizational Structures So That Teams Will Be Fully â€Å"Empowered†to Accomplish the Work Traditionally designed organizations often are plagued by constraining structures that have been built up over the years to monitor and control employee behavior. When teams are used to perform work, such structures tend to be viewed as necessary bureaucratic impediments to group functioning. Thus, Just as some managers mistakenly attempt to empower groups by relinquishing all authority to them, so do some attempt to cut through bureaucratic obstacles to team functioning by dismantling all the structures that they can. The assumption, apparently, is that removing structures will release the pent-up power of groups and make it possible for members to work together creatively and effectively. Managers who hold this view often wind up providing teams with less structure than they actually need. Tasks are defined only in vague, general terms. Lots of people ay be involved in the work, but the actual membership of the team is unclear. Norms of conduct are kept deliberately fuzzy. In the words of one manager, â€Å"The team will work out the details. If anything, the opposite is true: Groups with appropriate structures tend to develop healthy internal processes, whereas groups with insufficient or inappropriate structures tend to be plagued with process problems. 7 Because managers and members of troubled groups often perceive, wrongly, that their performance problems are due mainly to interpersonal difficulties, they may turn to process- focused coaching as a remedy. But process consultation is unlikel y to be helpful in such cases, precisely because the difficulties are structurally rooted. It is a near impossibility for members to learn how to interact well within a flawed or underspecified team structure. Our research suggests that an enabling structure for a work team has three components. First is a well-designed team task, one that engages and sustains member motivation. Such tasks are whole and meaningful pieces of work that stretch members’ skills, that provide ample autonomy for doing what needs to be done to accomplish the work, and that generate direct and rusticity feedback about results. Second is a well-composed group. Such groups are as small as possible, have clear boundaries, include members with adequate task and interpersonal skills, and have a good mix of members-?people who are neither so similar to one another that they are like peas in a pod nor so different that they are unable to work together. Third is clear and explicit specification of the basic norms of conduct for team behavior, the handful of â€Å"must do† and â€Å"must never do† behaviors that allow members to pursue their objectives without having to continuously discuss what kinds of behaviors are and are not acceptable. Although groups invariably develop their own norms over time, it is important to establish at the outset that members are expected to continuously monitor This point is reinforced in a quite different context by an essay written by Joe Freeman (1973) for her sisters in the feminist movement in the asses. The message of the essay is neatly captured by its title: â€Å"The Tyranny of Structuralizes. † 7 253 their environment and to revise their performance strategy as needed when their work situation changes. The key question about structure, then, is not how much of it a team has. Rather, it is bout the kind of structure that is provided: Does it enable and support collective work, or does it make teamwork more difficult and frustrating than it need be? Mistake 5: Specify Challenging Team Objectives, but Skimp on Organizational Supports Even if a work team has clear, engaging direction and an enabling structure, its performance can go sour-?or fall well below the group’s potential-?if it has insufficient organizational support. Teams in what Richard Walton (1985) calls â€Å"high commitment† organizations can fall victim to this mistake when they are given challenging objectives but not the resources to achieve them. Such teams often start out with great enthusiasm but then become disillusioned as they encounter frustration after frustration in trying to obtain the organizational supports they need to accomplish the work. If the full potential of work teams is to be realized, organizational structures and systems must actively support competent teamwork. Key supports include (1) a reward system that recognizes and reinforces excellent team performance (not Just individual contributions); (2) an educational system that provides teams, at their initiative, any training or technical consultation that may be added to supplement members’ own knowledge and expertise; (3) an information system that provides teams the data and forecasts members’ need to proactively manage their work; and (4) the mundane material resources-?equipment, tools, space, money, staff, or whatever-?that the work requires. It is no small undertaking to provide these supports to teams, especially in organizations that already have been tuned to support work performed by individuals. Existing performance appraisal systems, for example, may be state-of- the-art for measuring individual contributions but wholly inappropriate for assessing ND rewarding work done by teams. Corporate compensation policy may make no provision for team bonuses and, indeed, may explicitly prohibit them. Human resource departments may be primed to identify individuals’ training needs and to provide first-rate courses to fill those needs, but training in team skills may not be available at all. Information and control systems may provide senior managers with data that help them monitor and control overall organizational performance, but teams may not be able to get the information they need to autonomously manage their own work processes. To align existing organizational systems with the needs of task-performing teams usually requires managers to exercise power and influence both upward and laterally in the organization, and may involve difficult negotiations across functional boundaries. For these reasons, providing contextual supports for teams can be a 254 significant challenge for managers whose experience and expertise has mainly involved supporting and controlling work performed by individuals. That challenge is worth taking on, however, because an unsupported organizational context can undermine even teams that are otherwise quite well directed and well structured. It is especially shattering for a team to fail merely because the organizational supports it needs cannot be obtained. Mistake 6: Assume That Members Already Have All the Skills They Need to Work Well as a Team Once a team has been formed and given its task, managers sometimes assume their work is done. A strict hands-off stance, however, can limit a team’s effectiveness when members are not already skilled and experienced in teamwork-?a not uncommon state of affairs in cultures where individualism is a dominant value. It can be helpful, How to cite Why teams don’t work?, Papers